Podcast 🎧 & blog: Twenty years online: lessons from internet voting in Estonia

Written by Federico Plantera

Two decades ago, Estonia made democratic history. In 2005, it became the first country to hold legally binding national elections using internet voting. At the time, it was a bold and technically complex initiative. But twenty years later, i-voting has not only endured – it has grown to become the preferred method for a majority of Estonian voters. 

What can we learn from this story of digital continuity? In this podcast episode, Liia Hänni, digital democracy expert and former Estonian Minister, and Arne Koitmäe, Head of Estonia’s State Electoral Office, take us through a journey in retrospect – without forgetting to look ahead.  

Their reflections help shed light on the political culture, governance choices, and technological infrastructure that made this experiment last. Hearing that from two key stewards of this process can only add to the learning and the pleasure. 

A Culture of Trust and Political Boldness 

The road to internet voting in Estonia began well before 2005. Hänni recalls how the groundwork was laid already in the late 1990s when Parliament passed a digital signature law and introduced a national eID. “When we introduced the digital identity card in 2001, that was the moment of opportunity,” she explains. The government had to reissue citizens’ ID documents, and at the last moment, it was decided to embed a digital component. That became the enabler of secure online authentication – a prerequisite for remote voting. 

Yet this was not simply a technological initiative. There was also a strong sense of political drive. “Our society at the time was very innovation-oriented,” Hänni says. “The parliament felt this enthusiasm and acted on it.” Despite some partisan disagreements, the majority supported the introduction of internet voting as part of a broader digital state development strategy. The will to lead by example, coupled with a clear vision for Estonia’s digital future, created fertile ground for experimentation. 

For Koitmäe, who led the electoral office’s early technical efforts, it was essential to build on the state’s existing digital infrastructure. “We relied on the ID card and the Population Register, which were already in place,” he recalls. This allowed the electoral authorities to design a system that was both secure and user-friendly. But it also meant accepting that “some risks could not be fully eliminated.”  

Risk acceptance became a feature, not a flaw, of Estonia’s digital path. It reflected a pragmatic understanding that innovation inherently carries uncertainty – but that such uncertainty is manageable with transparency and a strong institutional backbone. 

Institutional Learning and Democratic Practice 

A digital voting system is only as strong as the democratic culture that surrounds it. From the start, e-Governance Academy played a key role in shaping how i-voting was introduced, explained, and institutionalised. As Hänni notes, “We had to teach voters about the new responsibility that came with voting online, like creating your own private space, even at home.” Ensuring that citizens understood the new mode of participation was essential to its legitimacy and effectiveness. 

Political parties, too, were involved from the beginning: a code of conduct was signed to ensure campaigns would not manipulate or interfere with remote voting practices. This early decision to create boundaries for fair political competition proved essential. Because, according to Koitmäe, one of the most valuable outcomes of Estonia’s experience has been the level of trust placed in voters themselves. “We assume that people are capable of acting independently and securely. That trust has paid off.” 

Indeed, trust is not only given but earned – and maintained through constant refinement. In fact, more than half of all ballots in the most recent elections were cast online. Moreover, international observers have consistently reviewed Estonia’s i-voting system, offering suggestions on how to improve verifiability and documentation. “There have been no major technical flaws,” Koitmäe says, “but always something to improve. Transparency helps maintain trust.” 

Still, scepticism persists, particularly along political lines. “Some parties continue to question the results,” Hänni admits, “especially when they don’t win. But most now encourage their supporters to vote online. Even criticism has helped us refine the system.” It’s this ongoing dialogue – sometimes contentious, always necessary – that has allowed the system to evolve without losing public legitimacy. 

A Model or an Exception? 

While Estonia’s i-voting system is well-established, few other countries have followed suit. Hänni suggests that part of the reason is the high threshold of trust and digital infrastructure required. But she also sees this as a future inevitability. “Sooner or later, online voting will be widespread. Governments must not wait for the perfect moment – they must prepare for it.” 

Koitmäe agrees. “Many democracies have started adopting digital solutions around elections, like electronic voter lists or counting machines. These are all steps toward internet voting, even if they don’t call it that yet.” 

Both stress that offering voters choice remains key. Paper ballots are still an option in Estonia, and for some, part of a civic ritual. But convenience matters too. A recent test of mobile voting was received enthusiastically. “We saw how much people appreciated the ability to vote anytime, anywhere,” Koitmäe says. Testament to how adaptability – preserving traditional methods while developing digital alternatives – has been crucial to Estonia’s sustained trust in the system. 

Reflecting on twenty years of practice, both our guests emphasise the deep connection between trust, agency, and participation. “Internet voting is not just a technical feature,” Hänni says. “It is a higher standard of democratic responsibility, both for voters and institutions.” Her words remind us that the digitalisation of democracy is not only a matter of technology or access, but of values, continuity, and the kind of future we are willing to design (and uphold) collectively. 

• Showcase “Internet voting – 20 years of lessons for digital democracy”

Presented by Liia Hänni, digital democracy expert and former Estonian Minister, and Arne Koitmäe, Head of Estonia’s State Electoral Office, at the e-Governance Conference 2025. 

• Interview with Liia Hänni 

Dr Liia Hänni shares her thoughts on why i-voting works in Estonia and what are the pre-requisites.